تحوّلات انتساب مسئولیت کیفری آمر و مأمور در حقوق بین‌الملل

نوع مقاله : علمی - پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 دانشجوی دوره دکترای حقوق بین‌الملل عمومی، دانشکده حقوق، الهیات و علوم سیاسی، واحد علوم و تحقیقات، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران.

2 استاد گروه حقوق عمومی و بین‌الملل، دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران (مسئول مکاتبات).

چکیده

مفهوم مسئولیت مافوق ریشه در مخاصمات کشورها، ملل و تمدّن‌ها دارد. به‌طور تاریخی مفهوم «حق با قدرت است» با اقدامات دول پیروز، بدون توجه به ماهیت مجرمانه این اعمال، توجیه شده است. این موضوع به‌خصوص از قرن هفدهم در مفهوم استعمار غربی به ثبوت رسیده و برتری نظامی، کارت سبز دول قدرتمند برای تجاوز بدون پاسخگویی بوده است. تلاش‌های زیادی برای برطرف نمودن این خلأ ازجمله در وستفالیا و توسط اروپائیان صورت گرفته است. با وجود این، در خارج از اروپا، در کشورهای استعمارزده، این وضعیت باقی ماند تا در سال‌های ۱۸۰۰، نظریه «عمل دولت» پا به عرصه وجود گذاشت.
چالش مسئولیت و عدم‌ِمسئولیت در میانه دو جنگ جهانی دوباره مطرح شد. منشور نورمبرگ، برای اولین بار با رویکرد «موقعیت رسمی نمی‌تواند موجب سلب مسئولیت گردد» و سربازان قبل از مأمور بودن انسانند، نقطه پایانی بر بی‌مسئولیتی گذاشت.
به‌موجب این منشور، فرماندهان نه‌فقط در قبال فرامین خود که در قبال اعمال زیردستان نیز مسئولند، چنین مسئولیت خاص نظامیان نیست بلکه سیاستمداران را نیز دربرمی‌گیرد.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Evolution of Retribution of Superior Criminal Responsibility in International Law

نویسندگان [English]

  • Hossein Askarirad 1
  • Seyyed Ghasem Zamani 2
1 Ph.D. Student in International Law, Faculty of Law, Divinity and Political Science, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran /
2 Professor, Department of Public and International Law, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran.
چکیده [English]

The concept of Superior Responsibility is well rooted in the history of clashes and confrontations of states, nations and civilizations. Historically the norm of “might is right” had justified the acts of the superior state regardless of the probable criminal nature of the deeds. This could be well applied to the colonial history of the west since 17th century. The mere superiority in power, precisely the military capabilities, sufficed to provide carte blanche for intrusion without accountability. There have been regional and international efforts to improve the drastic lack of responsibility by powerful states; the principle of Westphalia Sovereignty was the first European attempt to improve the matter. Nonetheless outside Europe, the irresponsible modus operandi remained a reality for the colonized states. Furthermore, in 1800s the Act of State doctrine in the US came into existence. The two doctrines remain the sole sources of the discourse until the First World War it was between the two world wars that the challenges of the discourse of responsibility versus irresponsibility was once again brought into the attention. The Nuremberg Charter, for the first time, put an end to the rhetoric in favor of the irresponsibility theory by acknowledging that: “the official position of defendants, shall be considered as freeing them from responsibility.”
The aforesaid phrase became the cornerstone of the Attributing Responsibility. Also, inferiors and soldiers deemed as responsible due to the fact that, they were human before being soldiers. Under the Charter, the superiors were also taken responsible not only for their own direct orders and acts, but also vicariously liable for the acts of their inferiors. The superior has been defined as army commander or civil superior. Hence such responsibility should not be limited only to military personnel, as it should also be held applicable to the politicians.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Superior
  • Inferior
  • Criminal Liability
  • Statute of the International Criminal Court
فهرست منابع
الف. منابع فارسی
آقایی جنت‌مکان، حسین. محاکمه قدرت. تهران: چاپ گنج دانش، 1386.
اساسنامه رم سال 1998.
چایساری، کریانگ ساک کیتی. حقوق کیفری بین‌المللی. چاپ سوم. ترجمه حسین آقایی جنت‌مکان. تهران: انتشارات جنگل، 1389.
خالقی، علی. جستارهایی از حقوق جزای بین‌الملل. چاپ اول. تهران: انتشارات مؤسسه مطالعات و پژوهشهای حقوقی شهر دانش، 1388.
فلاح‌زاده، محمدعلی. حقوق اداری تطبیقی. تهران: انتشارات مؤسسه مطالعات و پژوهشهای حقوقی شهر دانش، 1394.
لاگلین، مارتین. مبانی حقوق عمومی. ترجمه محمد راسخ. تهران: نشر نی، 1388.
هداوند، مهدی. حقوق اداری تطبیقی. تهران: انتشارات سمت، 1395.
ب. منابع خارجی
Bassiouni, M. Cherif. Crimes against Humanity in International Law. Oxford: Kluwer Law International, 1999.
Case Matrix Network CMN. Command Responsibility. 2nd Edition. Brussels: International Criminal Guideline ICJ Tool kits, 2016.
Cassese, Antonio, P. Gaeta. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Crowther, Jonathan. A Person of Higher Rank, Status or Position. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Delalic, Zejnil and Others. case no, 17-95-14/2, ICTY, Trial.
Gaeta, Paola. “The Defense of Superior Orders, the Statue of International Criminal Court versus Customary International Law.” Gjil 10 (1999): 766-807.
Garraway, Charles. “Superior Orders and the International Criminal Court: Justice Delivered or Justice Denied.” International Review of the Red Cross 836 (1999): 303-317.
Hamid, Abdul Ghafur, Khin Maung Sein. “The Defense of Superior Orders, Manifest Illegality Principle and the Statute of the International Criminal Court.” Asian Journal of International Law 3 (1 & 2) (2008): 172-191.
Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan (1651). ed. Richard Tuch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
ICTY, Celebici Judgment, Endorsed by the Appeals Chamber in Celebici Appeal Judgment.
ICTY, Kristic Judgment.
Kittichaisaree, K. International Criminal Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Knoops, G.J.alexander. Defense in Contemporary International Criminal Law. 2th Edition. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 2008.
McDonald, G. Kirk, O. Swee-Goldman. Substantive and Procedural Aspects of International Criminal Law. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2000.
Nybondas-Maarschalkerweerd, Maria L. The Responsibility Doctrine in International Criminal and its Applicability to Civilian Superiors. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, 2009.
Oppenheim, L. International Law: A Treatise. Vol. 2. London, New York: Longmans, Green, and co. 1905.
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Shakespeare in Hamlet: Act under Orders as Well Yet Hamlet Punishes them as they did Make Love to Their Employment.
Shaun Wood, Patrick. “Superior Responsibility and Crimes of Specific Intent.” Master Degree, University of Pretoria, 2013.
Sliedregt, E.van. “Defence in International Criminal Law.” Paper Presented at the Conference, “Convergence of Criminal Justice System: Building Bridge the Gap,” The International Society for Reform of Criminal Law, 17th International Conference, 2003.
Statement of the Law Member of the Toyoda War Crimes Tribunal Toyoda, War Crimes Tribunal Court House, Tokyo, 1949.
Triffterer in Triffterer (ed) (1999), Margin No. 33.
United Nation War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), vol. XV.
Vark, Rene. “Superior Responsibility.” ENDC Proceeding 15 (2012): 143-161.
Vetter, Greg R. “Command Responsibility of Nonmilitary Superiors in the International Criminal Court.” Yale Journal of International Law 25 (2000): 89-143.
Williamson, Jamie Allen. “Some Consideration on Command Responsibility and Criminal Liability.” International Review of Red Cross 90(870) (2008): 303-317.
Wilner, Alan M. “Superior Order as a Defense to Violations of International Criminal Law.” Maryland Law Review 26(2) (1966): 127-142.